Neoplasm
(NEE-oh-PLA-zum)

Introduction:
Neoplasm is a medical term that refers to a new growth of cells. Whereas "neo" means new and "plasm" refers to cells, the word neoplasm refers to abnormal overgrowth of cells rather than healthy new cell growth.
OR
An abnormal mass of tissue that results when cells divide more than they should or do not die when they should. Neoplasms may be benign (not cancerous), or malignant (cancerous). Also called tumor.
It is often used interchangeably with words such as tumor and cancer. The main use of the term neoplasm is in medical statistics that categorize deaths or other events, in which case neoplasm is typically the category that includes cancer statistics. A "benign neoplasm" usually refers to a benign tumor (non-cancerous$), whereas a "malignant neoplasm" usually refers to a cancerous tumor (i.e. cancer).

Symptoms of Malignant Neoplasm (Cancer)
Some of the symptoms of Malignant Neoplasm incude:
Cancer symptoms depend on the type of cancer but may include Abscess, Bowel symptoms, Bladder symptoms, Poorly healing skin sore etc.

Treatments for Malignant Neoplasm (Cancer)
Treatments for Malignant Neoplasm (Cancer) include:
Treatments depend on the specific type of cancer but some types of treatments are common
Chemotherapy, Radiation therapy, Surgery, Biological therapy (immunotherapy)



Malignant Neoplasm: Article Excerpts about Cancer
Cancer is a group of more than 100 different diseases. Cancer occurs when cells become abnormal and keep dividing and forming more cells without order or control. All organs of the body are made up of cells. Normally, cells divide to produce more cells only when the body needs them. If cells divide when new ones are not needed, they form a mass of excess tissue called a tumor. Tumors can be benign (not cancer) or malignant (cancer). The cells in malignant tumors can invade and damage nearby tissues and organs. Cancer cells can also break away from a malignant tumor and travel through the bloodstream or the lymphatic system to form new tumors in other parts of the body. The spread of cancer is called metastasis.

Terms associated with Malignant Neoplasm:
malignant tumor
metastatic tumor

More specific terms for Malignant Neoplasm:
carcinosarcoma
cancer
malignant neoplastic disease
angiosarcoma
myeloma
neuroblastoma
neuroepithelioma
retinoblastoma







Diabetes Mellitus

Definition:
Diabetes mellitus is a group of metabolic diseases characterized by high blood sugar (glucose) levels, which result from defects in insulin secretion, or action, or both. Diabetes mellitus, commonly referred to as diabetes was first identified as a disease associated with “sweet urine," and excessive muscle loss in the ancient world. Elevated levels of blood glucose (hyperglycemia) lead to spillage of glucose into the urine, hence the term sweet urine. Normally, blood glucose levels are tightly controlled by insulin, a hormone produced by the pancreas. Insulin lowers the blood glucose level. When the blood glucose elevates (for example, after eating food), insulin is released from the pancreas to normalize the glucose level. In patients with diabetes, the absence or insufficient production of insulin causes hyperglycemia. Diabetes is a chronic medical condition, meaning that although it can be controlled, it lasts a lifetime.

Causes:
Insufficient production of insulin (either absolutely or relative to the body's needs), production of defective insulin (which is uncommon), or the inability of cells to use insulin properly and efficiently leads to hyperglycemia and diabetes. This latter condition affects mostly the cells of muscle and fat tissues, and results in a condition known as "insulin resistance." This is the primary problem in type 2 diabetes. The absolute lack of insulin, usually secondary to a destructive process affecting the insulin producing beta cells in the pancreas, is the main disorder in type 1 diabetes. In type 2 diabetes, there also is a steady decline of beta cells that adds to the process of elevated blood sugars. For more, please read the Insulin Resistance article. Essentially, if someone is resistant to insulin, the body can, to some degree, increase production of insulin and overcome the level of resistance. After time, if production decreases and insulin cannot be released as vigorously, hyperglycemia develops.



Symptoms:
The early symptoms of untreated diabetes are related to elevated blood sugar levels, and loss of glucose in the urine. High amounts of glucose in the urine can cause increased urine output (polyurea) and lead to dehydration. Dehydration causes increased thirst (polydepsia) and water consumption. The inability of insulin to perform normally has effects on protein, fat and carbohydrate metabolism. Insulin is an anabolic hormone, that is, one that encourages storage of fat and protein. A relative or absolute insulin deficiency eventually leads to weight loss despite an increase in appetite. Some untreated diabetes patients also complain of fatigue, nausea and vomiting. Patients with diabetes are prone to developing infections of the bladder, skin, and vaginal areas. Fluctuations in blood glucose levels can lead to blurred vision. Extremely elevated glucose levels can lead to lethargy and coma.

Diagnosis:
The fasting blood glucose (sugar) test is the preferred way to diagnose diabetes. It is easy to perform and convenient. After the person has fasted overnight (at least 8 hours), a single sample of blood is drawn and sent to the laboratory for analysis. This can also be done accurately in a doctor's office using a glucose meter.

Normal fasting plasma glucose levels are less than 100 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dl). Fasting plasma glucose levels of more than 126 mg/dl on two or more tests on different days indicate diabetes. A random blood glucose test can also be used to diagnose diabetes A blood glucose level of 200 mg/dl or higher indicates diabetes.

When fasting blood glucose stays above 100mg/dl, but in the range of 100-126mg/dl, this is known as impaired fasting glucose (IFG). While patients with IFG do not have the diagnosis of diabetes, this condition carries with it its own risks and concerns, and is addressed elsewhere.

A person has Diabetes when two diagnostic tests done on different days show that the blood glucose level is high.

Complications:
DM has two types of complications (1) Acute and (2) Chronic.
Acute Complications:
•    Hyperglycemia is the elevated blood sugar level due to the actual lack of insulin or a relative deficiency of insulin.
•     Hypoglycemia is the abnormally low blood sugar levels due to too much insulin or other glucose-lowering medications.
•    Ketoacidosis can be caused by infections, stress, or trauma all which may increase insulin requirements. In addition, missing doses of insulin is also an obvious risk factor for developing diabetic ketoacidosis. Urgent treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis involves the intravenous administration of fluid, electrolytes, and insulin, usually in a hospital intensive care unit.
•    Blood glucose is essential for the proper functioning of brain cells. Therefore, low blood sugar can lead to central nervous system symptoms such as dizziness, confusion, weakness, and tremors. The actual level of blood sugar at which these symptoms occur varies with each person, but usually it occurs when blood sugars are less than 65 mg/dl.
Chronic Complications:
Eye Complications:
The major eye complication of diabetes is called diabetic retinopathy. Diabetic retinopathy occurs in patients who have had diabetes for at least five years. Diseased small blood vessels in the back of the eye cause the leakage of protein and blood in the retina. Disease in these blood vessels also causes the formation of small aneurysms (microaneurysms), and new but brittle blood vessels (neovascularization). Spontaneous bleeding from the new and brittle blood vessels can lead to retinal scarring and retinal detachment, thus impairing vision.
To treat diabetic retinopathy a laser is used to destroy and prevent the recurrence of the development of these small aneurysms and brittle blood vessels.



Kidney damage
Kidney damage from diabetes is called diabetic nephropathy. The onset of kidney disease and its progression is extremely variable. Initially, diseased small blood vessels in the kidneys cause the leakage of protein in the urine. Later on, the kidneys lose their ability to cleanse and filter blood. The accumulation of toxic waste products in the blood leads to the need for dialysis. Dialysis involves using a machine that serves the function of the kidney by filtering and cleaning the blood. In patients who do not want to undergo chronic dialysis, kidney transplantation can be considered.
Nerve damage
Nerve damage in diabetes is called diabetic neuropathy and is also caused by disease of small blood vessels. In essence, the blood flow to the nerves is limited, leaving the nerves without blood flow, and they get damaged or die as a result (a term known as ischemia). Symptoms of diabetic nerve damage include numbness, burning, and aching of the feet and lower extremities. When the nerve disease causes a complete loss of sensation in the feet, patients may not be aware of injuries to the feet, and fail to properly protect them. Shoes or other protection should be worn as much as possible. Seemingly minor skin injuries should be attended to promptly to avoid serious infections. Because of poor blood circulation, diabetic foot injuries may not heal. Sometimes, minor foot injuries can lead to serious infection, ulcers, and even gangrene, necessitating surgical amputation of toes, feet, and other infected parts.
Diabetic nerve damage can affect the nerves that are important for penile erection, causing erectile dysfunction (ED, impotence). Erectile dysfunction can also be caused by poor blood flow to the penis from diabetic blood vessel disease.
Diabetic neuropathy can also affect nerves to the stomach and intestines, causing nausea, weight loss, diarrhea, and other symptoms of gastroparesis (delayed emptying of food contents from the stomach into the intestines, due to ineffective contraction of the stomach muscles).
Impact of DM
Over time, diabetes can lead to blindness, kidney failure, and nerve damage. These types of damage are the result of damage to small vessels, referred to as microvascular disease. Diabetes is also an important factor in accelerating the hardening and narrowing of the arteries (atherosclerosis), leading to strokes, coronary heart disease, and other large blood vessel diseases. This is referred to as macrovascular disease. Diabetes affects approximately 17 million people (about 8% of the population) in the United States. In addition, an estimated additional 12 million people in the United States have diabetes and don't even know it. From an economic perspective, the total annual cost of diabetes in 1997 was estimated to be 98 billion dollars in the United States. The per capita cost resulting from diabetes in 1997 amounted to $10,071.00; while healthcare costs for people without diabetes incurred a per capita cost of $2,699.00. During this same year, 13.9 million days of hospital stay were attributed to diabetes, while 30.3 million physician office visits were diabetes related. Remember, these numbers reflect only the population in the United States. Globally, the statistics are staggering.



Inflammation
Definition
Inflammation is the response of vascular and supporting elements of the living tissue to an injury which results in the formation of protein rich exudates provided the injury is not severe enough to cause instant death of tissue.

Classification
Inflammation is classifies into an Acute and Chronic on the basis of duration and cellular infiltration.

On the Basis of Duration
Acute Inflammation
When the inflammation lasts for hours, days or maximally for weeks then its called as acute inflammation, e.g. Acute Tonsillitis.

Chronic Inflammation
Inflammation which lasts for months and years is termed as chronic one, e.g. Tuberculosis.

On the Basis of Cellular Infiltration
Acute Inflammation
When the cellular exudate is predominantly composed of cells of acute inflammation which are Neutrophils and Macrophages.

Chronic Inflammation
When the cellular exudates is mainly composed of cells of chronic inflammation which are lymphocytes and plasma cells.

Appendicitis
Appendicitis is inflammation of the appendix, a finger-shaped pouch extending from the large intestine. The condition causes abdominal pain, which can be severe. If not treated by surgical removal of the appendix (also known as an appendectomy), appendicitis can lead to a more widespread inflammation in the abdomen.

Systemic Inflammation
Systemic inflammation is a condition of uncontrolled inflammation spreading throughout the body and causing tissue damage and organ dysfunction, sometimes ending in organ failure and death.




Causes
Mechanical
Trauma, cutting and crushing
Physical
Ionizing radiation in the form of radiotherapy and atomic blast.
Injuries caused by cold and heat like frost bite and burn
Chemical
Acid and alkali etc
Biological
Living organisms such as Bacteria, Viruses and fungi etc.
Causes of Chronic Inflammation
1) Acute inflammation can progress to chronic inflammation if the causative agent is not completely removed, like “acute cholecystitis” (inflammation of the gall bladder) can progress to “chronic cholecystitis”.
2) The inflammation can be chronic from the very beginning depending on the nature of the causative agent, like “Tuberculosis” caused by “Mycobacterium Tuberculosis”.
Signs
Local Signs
a)    Calor: Increased head if the part
b)    Rubor: Increased redness of the part
c)    Tumor: Swelling of the inflamed part
d)    Dolor: Pain in the inflamed area
e)    Functio Laesa: Loss of function

Systemic Signs
a)    Pyrexia: Increased body temperature
b)    Aches and Pain all over the body
c)    Leucocytosis; Increase in total leucocytes count.

Treatment
To reduce inflammation and the resulting swelling and pain, injured tissue needs to be properly treated. The earlier you start treatment, the better.
Treatment for acute inflammation consists of “RICE” therapy—which stands for Rest, Ice, Compression, and Elevation. For acute inflammation in the foot or ankle, your foot and ankle surgeon will recommend "RICE" therapy
•    Rest. Stay off of your foot as much as possible to prevent further injury. In some cases, complete immobilization may be required. Your doctor will decide whether you will need crutches and whether movement of your foot or ankle is appropriate.
•    Ice. Icing, which decreases blood flow to the tissue, thus reducing swelling and pain, should be continued until your symptoms resolve. Wrap ice cubes—or a bag of frozen peas or corn—in a thin towel and place the pack on the injured area for 20 minutes of each hour you’re awake. If your skin turns blue or white, discontinue icing for a few hours. Two cautions: Never apply ice or frozen bags directly to your skin. And never leave an ice pack on your injury while you sleep.
•    Compression. Keep the inflamed area compressed by wrapping it in an elastic bandage or stocking. Compression prevents additional fluid accumulation and helps reduce pain. Wrap the bandage more firmly at the toes and less firmly at the calf. If your toes tingle or your foot throbs, the wrapping may need to be loosened. If the tingling or throbbing continues after loosening the wrap, contact your doctor as soon as possible.
•    Elevation. Keeping the foot elevated reduces the swelling by allowing excess fluid to drain to the heart. The proper way to elevate your foot is to keep it level with or slightly above the heart. Place one or two pillows under your calf, and make sure your hip and knee are slightly bent. Never keep your leg extended straight out.



Elevate the leg properly




In addition to the above measures, your foot and ankle surgeon may prescribe a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), such as ibuprofen, or another type of medication.
If Pain Persists or Becomes Worse
The symptoms of inflammation typically improve within two or three days. If your pain and discomfort do not improve after three days, call your doctor or go to an emergency room to determine whether a more serious problem exists.
As with any medical problem, it’s important that you follow your doctor’s instructions carefully regarding your injury or postoperative care.